Emerging landscape of mind-altering digital technologies

Our latest paper is now out in International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction - Mind-Altering Digital Technologies: A Scoping Review

We already use digital technologies to change how we feel, focus, and experience the world, and often do so without thinking much about it. But what changes when altering our state of mind in new ways becomes the technology’s explicit purpose?

The paper brings together research on technologies that can induce or support altered states of consciousness: experiences involving meaningful changes in perception, awareness, cognition, emotion, or the sense of self. These include psychedelic virtual environments, biofeedback systems, immersive audiovisual experiences, and emerging applications of artificial intelligence. Although interest in such technologies is increasing, the research has so far remained fragmented across human–computer interaction, consciousness studies, psychology, healthcare, art, and design. Different fields have often examined similar phenomena using different concepts and vocabularies, making it difficult to see the larger picture. This study is thus a partf of the DIAL project that aims at consolidating this interdisciplinary field at the intersection of human-computer interaction, media, psychology, and future studies.

We conducted a scoping review of 24 empirical and proof-of-concept studies through the concept of digitally induced altered states of consciousness (DIAL).

Across the reviewed studies, immersive virtual reality, biofeedback, and artificial intelligence emerged as the most prominent technologies. Visual, auditory, and light-based stimulation were among the most commonly used ways of influencing experience. These technologies were used to support a broad range of experiences. Depending on the study, researchers examined changes in relaxation, attention, emotion, bodily awareness, self-perception, or the feeling of being immersed in an environment. Some systems were intended for therapeutic or wellbeing-related settings, while others were exploratory artworks or early technical prototypes. The 24 studies differed considerably in what they understood an altered state to be. A subtle change in relaxation or attentional focus could be discussed alongside much more pronounced experiences, such as changes in bodily perception or the sense of self. This makes direct comparisons difficult and highlights the need for clearer definitions.

There was similar variation in how effects were measured. Most studies relied strongly on participants describing their own experiences through questionnaires, interviews, or rating scales. These accounts are important when studying subjective phenomena, but they can be difficult to compare when researchers use different concepts and measures. Some studies supplemented self-reports with physiological data, such as heart rate or brain activity. Yet these measures also varied, and physiological change alone does not necessarily tell us what a person experienced or how meaningful that experience was. Importantly, only around half of the reviewed studies reported effect sizes. This limits what can be concluded about the strength of the observed effects, even where statistically significant differences were found.

The studies also differed in the role technology played in shaping the experience. Some systems were designed to induce altered states through sensory stimulation, while others used digital technology as part of a broader practice or intervention. Across the reviewed work, technologies could provide the stimulus, structure the setting, respond to users’ physiological signals, or help researchers examine the resulting experience.

Overall, we found that the field is not only emerging but is also still working out how its phenomena should be defined, studied, measured, and compared and we hope that this review will serve as a cornerstone for future DIAL research. The review points towards several priorities for future work: clearer terminology, more comparable measures, stronger reporting practices, and closer attention to individual differences. Researchers also need to distinguish between experiences that are merely unusual, absorbing, or relaxing and those that constitute more substantial alterations in consciousness. Moreover, questions of safety and responsibility will become increasingly relevant as these systems move beyond laboratory demonstrations. Technologies that affect attention, emotion, bodily awareness, or the sense of self may have useful applications, but their effects may not be equally desirable or predictable for every user.

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Ojell-Järventausta, T., Belousov, A., Bujić, M., Macey, J., & Hamari, J. (2026). Mind-Altering Digital Technologies: A Scoping Review. International Journal of Human–Computer Interaction, 1-19.

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2026.2695939

Authors: Terho Ojell-Järventausta, Anatolii Belousov, Mila Bujić, Juho Hamari

Funding: This research was funded by the Kone Foundation (DIAL) and Research Council of Finland (‘POSTEMOTION’).